509 BCE Roman monarchy is overthrown Rome replaces kingship with republican magistracies, beginning the Roman Republic. 494 BCE First secession of the plebs Plebeians withdraw from Rome in protest, leading to the creation of the tribunate. 451 BCE Twelve Tables are issued Rome's first written legal code is drafted and publicly displayed. 390 BCE Gauls sack Rome A Gallic force captures Rome, leaving a lasting mark on Roman memory and military policy. 367 BCE Licinian-Sextian reforms pass The reforms open the consulship to plebeians and reshape republican politics. 287 BCE Lex Hortensia is enacted Resolutions of the plebeian assembly gain the force of law for all Romans. 264 BCE First Punic War begins Rome enters a long struggle with Carthage for power in the western Mediterranean. 218 BCE Second Punic War begins Hannibal's invasion of Italy produces one of Rome's gravest crises. 202 BCE Rome wins the Battle of Zama Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal and secures Roman victory in the Second Punic War. 146 BCE Carthage is destroyed Rome destroys Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War and dominates the western Mediterranean. 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus launches agrarian reform His tribunate intensifies social conflict and inaugurates a turbulent reform era. 88 BCE Sulla marches on Rome Sulla's seizure of the city breaks republican norms and deepens civil conflict. 82 BCE Sulla becomes dictator Sulla uses dictatorship and proscriptions to reorder the Roman state. 73 BCE Spartacus revolt begins A major slave uprising challenges Roman authority in Italy. 60 BCE First Triumvirate is formed Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus build an informal political alliance to dominate Roman politics. 49 BCE Caesar crosses the Rubicon Caesar's advance into Italy triggers a new civil war. 48 BCE Caesar wins at Pharsalus Caesar defeats Pompey in the decisive battle of the civil war. March 15, 44 BCE Julius Caesar is assassinated Caesar is killed on the Ides of March by senators who claim to defend the republic. 43 BCE Second Triumvirate is established Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus receive legal authority to restore order and pursue enemies. 31 BCE Octavian wins the Battle of Actium Octavian's naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra makes him the dominant Roman leader. 27 BCE Augustan settlement ends the republic Octavian receives the title Augustus, inaugurating the Roman Empire.